Introduction to the Topic

Pre-scientific Psychology

The period before psychology emerged as an independent scientific discipline (1879), when psychological questions (the nature of the soul, consciousness, the mind-body relationship) were primarily addressed within philosophy, theology, and early medicine.

During this period, the fundamental questions we still seek to answer today were formed – the debate over innate versus acquired traits, the nature of temperament, and the relationship between the brain and behavior. Later founders of scientific psychology drew heavily from these philosophical reflections.

Antiquity and Early Theories

Plato427–347 BCAncient Philosophy

Proponent of ancient idealism and dualism. He considered the soul to be immortal, separate from the body, and superior to matter. His most significant contribution to psychology is his tripartite theory of the soul:

Reason (rational part): Located in the head, its virtue is wisdom.
Spirit (will, higher emotions): Located in the chest, its virtue is courage.
Appetite (drives, instincts): Located in the abdomen, its virtue is temperance.

Aristotle384–322 BCAncient Philosophy

Proponent of monism – the body and soul form an inseparable, unified whole. He wrote the treatise On the Soul (Peri psychés / De anima), which is considered the very first psychological work.

Entelechy: The inner purpose and principle that shapes the body and gives it its living form and dynamics.

Hippocrates and GalenMedicine and Physiology

Hippocrates (the father of medicine) and later the Roman physician Galen laid the foundations for the physiological approach. Their classical typology of temperament is still used today.

Theory of the 4 Bodily Humors (Humoral Typology)

Sanguine: Predominance of blood (sanguis). Lively, cheerful, sociable, but unstable.
Choleric: Predominance of yellow bile (cholé). Hot-tempered, impulsive, explosive.
Melancholic: Predominance of black bile (melan cholé). Sad, overly sensitive, slow.
Phlegmatic: Predominance of phlegm (flegma). Calm, slow, indifferent.

Exam Trap

Entrance exams often try to trick you regarding the authorship of humoral typology. Hippocrates identified the 4 basic bodily humors as the foundation of health, but the precise division into 4 temperament types in a systematic form was completed by Galen.

Medieval Psychology and Theology

In the Middle Ages, ancient ideas were adapted for the needs of Christian theology.

Saint Augustine354–430Patristics

As one of the first, he introduced the method of introspection (looking inward) to the study of the soul. He believed that truth could not be found through external senses, but only by diving into one's own inner self. He also emphasized the fundamental role of human free will.

Thomas Aquinas1225–1274Scholasticism

He attempted a synthesis of Christian faith and Aristotle's philosophy. For psychology, his emphasis on sensory knowledge is significant – he believed that "nothing is in the intellect that was not first in the senses."

Modern Philosophy and Empiricism

René Descartes1596–1650Rationalism

French philosopher, founder of modern rationalism. His fundamental philosophical starting point is the famous statement Cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am). He was a proponent of the theory of innate ideas, making him a predecessor of nativism.

Interactionist dualism: The mind (res cogitans) and body (res extensa) are two strictly separate substances that mutually influence each other in the pineal gland (epiphysis).

Baruch Spinoza1632–1677Rationalism / Monism

Dutch philosopher who sharply rejected Descartes' dualism. He claimed that there is only one single substance (God or Nature), which manifests itself in different ways.

Psychophysical parallelism: The theory that mental and physical processes occur simultaneously and in parallel, without interacting with each other (they are just two sides of the same coin).

Interactionist Dualism (Descartes)

Two separate substances (mind and body)
Mutually interact with each other (in the pineal gland)

Psychophysical Parallelism (Spinoza)

One substance with two aspects
Run in parallel without mutual interaction

John Locke1632–1704Empiricism

British philosopher, founder of empiricism. He sharply rejected Descartes' innate ideas.

Tabula rasa: The mind is a blank slate at birth, and all human knowledge comes exclusively from experience (sensory perception).
Associationism: The basic mechanism of learning and forming complex thoughts, consisting of linking simple perceptions into wholes.

Nativism (Descartes)

Innate ideas and abilities
Reason independent of experience
A priori equipment at birth

Empiricism (Locke)

Tabula rasa (blank slate)
All knowledge comes from the senses
Result of environmental influence and education

G. W. Leibniz1646–1716Rationalism

German philosopher who was one of the first to draw attention to the existence of the unconscious.

Monads: Indivisible, immaterial spiritual units of which reality is composed.
Petites perceptions (Small perceptions): Stimuli that affect our senses but are too weak to cross the threshold of consciousness (e.g., the sound of the sea composed of thousands of droplets).

Pseudosciences and Medicine

On the border between science and error, movements arose in the past that, despite their invalidity, stimulated enormous interest in investigating the relationship between body and soul.

Pseudosciences in Physiology

Phrenology (Franz Joseph Gall, 1758–1828): Claimed that character and abilities could be determined by the shape of the skull. Although debunked, its effort to find a specific place in the brain for traits stimulated modern research into the localization of brain functions.
Physiognomy (G. B. della Porta, 1535–1615): Claimed that psychological traits, tendencies, and the nature of a person could be reliably read directly from their facial features and bodily structure.

Philippe Pinel1745–1826Psychiatry

French physician who pushed for the humanization of psychiatry. In 1793 in Paris, he ordered the legendary "unchaining" of the mentally ill.

The Beginnings of Modern Thought

Charles Darwin1809–1882Evolutionary Theory

British naturalist. Although not a psychologist, his work fundamentally influenced modern psychology (especially functionalism and evolutionary psychology).

Natural selection: The key mechanism of evolution: individuals with traits best adapted to the environment survive and reproduce.

William James1842–1910Functionalism

American psychologist, key figure of functionalism. He was interested in how the mind helps the organism adapt.

Stream of consciousness: Consciousness is not static, but a constantly changing, continuous flow of thoughts (stream of consciousness).
James-Lange theory of emotion: A theory stating that a bodily reaction precedes the emotion (we cry, and therefore we are sad).

Key Takeaways

Antiquity and Middle Ages: Plato (tripartite soul), Aristotle (entelechy), Hippocrates and Galen (4 bodily humors), Augustine (introspection).
Modern Era: Descartes (Cogito, dualism) vs. Spinoza (parallelism) and Descartes (nativism) vs. Locke (Tabula rasa, experience).
Pseudosciences: Gall's phrenology wrongly read from the skull, but opened the topic of brain function localization.
Evolution: Charles Darwin introduced natural selection, which influenced the understanding of behavioral adaptation.
Eve of Modernity: William James founded functionalism and described the stream of consciousness.

Which ancient philosopher introduced the concept of entelechy and what does this concept mean?

Correct Answer: AristotleExplanation: The concept of entelechy was introduced by Aristotle in his treatise On the Soul. It means the inner purpose and principle that shapes the body and gives it its living form. (For comparison: Plato is associated with the tripartite soul, Descartes with interactionist dualism, and Locke with tabula rasa).

What was Franz Joseph Gall's main contribution to the later development of psychology, even though his phrenology was debunked?

Correct Answer: He paved the way for the idea of the localization of brain functions.

Who rejected Descartes' interactionist dualism and claimed that the body and mind are only two parallel attributes of one single substance?

Correct Answer: Baruch Spinoza (Psychophysical Parallelism)