Introduction to the Topic

The Birth of Scientific Psychology

The formal beginning of scientific psychology is considered to be 1879, when Wilhelm Wundt founded the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig. This marked the definitive separation of psychology from philosophy as it began to employ experimental and exact research methods.

This turning point paved the way for measuring psychological phenomena (psychophysics, intelligence testing) and later for the emergence of major psychological schools, such as classical psychoanalysis focused on exploring the unconscious.

The Birth of Scientific Psychology and Experimental Approaches

Wilhelm Wundt1832–1920Founder of Psychology

Founded the first psychological experimental laboratory (Leipzig, 1879). His approach is called element psychology because he sought to break down consciousness into its smallest possible components (elements). He used strictly controlled introspection (self-observation) as his primary research method.

Edward B. Titchener1867–1927Structuralism

Wundt's student who brought his teachings to the USA. He founded the movement known as structuralism—focusing on "what" the mind is made of (seeking the structure of consciousness), much like chemistry breaks substances down into elements.

Exam Trap

In entrance exams, Wundt/Titchener are often confused with William James. Remember: Wundt and Titchener studied the STRUCTURE of the mind (what it consists of). William James (functionalism) studied the FUNCTION of the mind (what it serves for and how it helps us adapt).

Gustav T. Fechner1801–1887Psychophysics

Founder of psychophysics. He created precise methods for measuring the relationship between a physical stimulus (e.g., light intensity) and a psychological perception (how strongly we perceive the light). Known for the Weber-Fechner law.

Hermann Ebbinghaus1850–1909Memory Research

Pioneer of the experimental study of memory. He used so-called nonsense syllables to eliminate the influence of prior experience. He discovered the famous Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve, which shows that we forget the most information immediately after learning it.

Paul Broca and Carl WernickeNeuropsychology and Localization

Physicians who, in the 19th century, confirmed that specific mental functions reside in particular parts of the brain (partially rehabilitating the basic idea of phrenology, though debunking its method).

Broca's area: Responsible for speech production (motor aphasia—the patient understands but cannot speak).
Wernicke's area: Responsible for speech comprehension (sensory aphasia—the patient speaks fluently but it makes no sense and they do not understand others).

Francis Galton1822–1911Psychometrics

Darwin's cousin. He was interested in heredity and individual differences. He is a pioneer of psychometrics (measurement of psychological traits) and, unfortunately, eugenics (the effort to "improve" the human gene pool).

The Origins of Intelligence Measurement

The measurement of intelligence was crucial for applying psychology in practice (education, military, healthcare).

Alfred Binet: Along with Theodore Simon, he created the very first practically usable intelligence test in 1905 (Binet-Simon Scale). The test was intended to identify children in need of special pedagogical help.
William Stern: German psychologist who, in 1912, introduced the term intelligence quotient (IQ). He devised the classic formula: IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) × 100.
David Wechsler: Created modern intelligence tests (e.g., WAIS for adults and WISC for children), which moved away from Stern's formula to so-called deviation IQ (comparing an individual's performance with their age group).

Classical Psychoanalysis (Depth Psychology)

Psychoanalysis

A movement and therapeutic method founded by Sigmund Freud. It focuses on exploring deep, unconscious motives, repressed emotions, and drives, which Freud believed determine our experience and behavior more than conscious will.

Sigmund Freud1856–1939Father of Psychoanalysis

Viennese neurologist and psychiatrist, author of the theory of the unconscious, dreams, and psychosexual development. He advocated the view that mental disorders arise from repressed unconscious (primarily sexual and aggressive) conflicts.

Freud's Models of the Psyche

Topographic Model: Divides the psyche into 3 levels: Conscious (what we are currently aware of), Preconscious (information we can recall if we focus attention on it), and Unconscious (repressed drives, traumas, irrational desires).
Structural Model: Divides personality into 3 instances: Id (It—drives, pleasure principle, irrational), Ego (I—reason, reality principle, seeks compromise), and Superego (Above-I—morality, conscience, perfection principle).

Exam Trap

Watch out for Freud's conflicts of instances! The constant internal struggle does not only happen between Id and Ego, but especially between Id (I want it now) and Superego (you mustn't, it's immoral). Ego serves as a referee trying to resolve this conflict for survival in reality.

Freud's Theory of Drives

Freud believed that human behavior is driven by two fundamental antagonistic drives:

Life Drive (Eros)

Includes self-preservation drives and sexual energy (Libido)
Aims toward creation, preservation of the species, and love

Death Drive (Thanatos)

The darker side of the psyche
Aims toward destruction, aggression, repetition of mistakes, and extinction

Ego Defense Mechanisms

When the Ego cannot handle the pressure between Id and Superego, it experiences anxiety. To alleviate it, it employs unconscious defense mechanisms. Although described by Sigmund Freud, their systematic classification and elaboration are the work of his daughter, Anna Freud.

Repression: Pushing unacceptable thoughts or memories from consciousness into the unconscious.
Projection: Attributing one's own unacceptable traits or feelings to other people (e.g., an aggressive person claiming everyone around them is aggressive).
Sublimation: The only 'healthy' defense mechanism. An unacceptable drive is transformed into a socially acceptable activity (e.g., aggression is channeled into sports, sexual energy into art).
Regression: Returning to a lower, earlier stage of development during stress (e.g., an older child starting to wet the bed again after the birth of a sibling).
Reaction Formation: Feelings or motives are outwardly manifested as their exact opposite (e.g., exaggerated politeness toward someone we actually hate).
Denial: Refusing to accept an obviously unpleasant reality or fact (e.g., a patient refusing to believe a clear medical diagnosis).
Rationalization: Finding logical but false excuses for unacceptable behavior or failure (e.g., 'I didn't want to pass the exam anyway, the subject is useless.').
Intellectualization: Cutting off emotions from a stressful event and processing it purely rationally and coldly.
Displacement: Redirecting a repressed emotion (often anger) toward a safer, substitute target (e.g., a boss yells at an employee, who represses it and yells at their partner at home).

Psychosexual Development and Interpretation of Dreams

According to Freud, personality is formed in the first years of life through the shifting of libido into different erogenous zones of the body.

Oral stage (0–1 year)

The main erogenous zone is the mouth. The child achieves pleasure through sucking, biting, and swallowing. The key conflict is weaning from the breast. Fixation at this stage can lead to oral habits in adulthood (smoking, overeating, nail-biting) or specific personality traits: oral-receptive (excessive dependence, gullibility) or oral-aggressive (biting sarcasm, cynicism).

Anal stage (1–3 years)

Attention shifts to the anal area (retaining and expelling). The central theme is toilet training, which is society's first demand for self-control. Fixation leads to two extremes: anal-retentive personality (extreme pedantry, obsessive desire for order, stubbornness, stinginess) or anal-expulsive personality (inappropriate defiance, messiness, aggression, and chaos).

Phallic stage (3–6 years)

The genitals become the source of pleasure. A crucial phase for personality development. The Oedipus complex appears in boys (unconscious desire for the mother and rivalry with the father, accompanied by castration anxiety) and the Electra complex in girls (affection for the father and penis envy). Successful resolution lies in identifying with the same-sex parent, whereby the child internalizes moral norms and fully forms their Superego.

Latency period (6–12 years)

Sexual drives are temporarily suppressed (dormant). Libidinal energy is redirected (sublimated) into non-sexual activities: fulfilling school duties, developing hobbies, sports, and building strong friendships primarily with same-sex peers. The child acquires social and cognitive skills.

Genital stage (from 12 years / puberty)

With the onset of puberty, physiological maturation occurs and sexual drives are reawakened. Unlike the self-centered phallic stage, sexuality is now mature, altruistic, and focused on partners outside the primary family. The main goal is psychological independence from parents and the ability to form deep intimate relationships.

The Interpretation of Dreams (The Royal Road to the Unconscious): Freud claimed that dreams are the fulfillment of repressed wishes. He distinguished between manifest content (what we remember from the dream in the morning) and latent content (the hidden, symbolic meaning of the dream generated by the unconscious).

Key Points

The Birth of Scientific Psychology: 1879, Wilhelm Wundt in Leipzig. Experiment and introspection (structuralism).
Researchers: Fechner (psychophysics), Ebbinghaus (forgetting curve), Galton (individual differences), Broca and Wernicke (speech centers).
Intelligence: Binet created the first test, Stern defined the IQ formula, Wechsler modernized measurement using deviation IQ.
Psychoanalysis (Freud): Focused on the unconscious. Topographic model (conscious, preconscious, unconscious) and structural model (Id, Ego, Superego).
Dynamics of Personality: Determined by drives (Eros and Thanatos) and constant conflicts that the Ego resolves using defense mechanisms (systematized by Anna Freud).

Which psychologist introduced the term intelligence quotient (IQ) and proposed a formula for its calculation by the ratio of mental and chronological age?

Correct answer: William SternExplanation: Although Alfred Binet created the first intelligence test focused on mental age, it was the German psychologist William Stern who, in 1912, proposed the mathematical formula for calculating the intelligence quotient (IQ = MA/CA * 100). David Wechsler later abandoned this formula for adults.

In Freud's structural theory of personality, one of the instances is driven exclusively by the pleasure principle and is the source of our basic unconscious drives. What is this instance called?

Correct answer: Id (It)Explanation: The Id represents the deepest, biological component of personality, which is entirely unconscious, irrational, and driven by the pleasure principle (wants immediate satisfaction of needs). The Ego is driven by the reality principle and the Superego by the perfection/morality principle.

What defense mechanism is involved if a student reassures themselves by saying 'I didn't pass the exam anyway because the test was unfair and the subject is useless'?

Correct answer: RationalizationExplanation: The student unconsciously uses logical but false arguments to justify their failure and protect their Ego from feelings of guilt or incompetence.

The Birth of Scientific Psychology and Classical Psychoanalysis