1. Personality Psychology
Temperament: Who is Who?
Pavlov studied the properties of the nervous system (strength, mobility, balance). Eysenck created the PEN model (Psychoticism, Extraversion, Neuroticism). Trap: The terms introversion and extraversion were not invented by Eysenck, but introduced by C. G. Jung.
The Big Five Model
The most widely accepted model of personality traits (OCEAN). It includes: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism.
Cattell's Intelligence
Fluid intelligence is innate and naturally declines with age. Crystallized intelligence is acquired through learning (e.g., vocabulary) and, conversely, increases with age.
Ego Defense Mechanisms
According to Freud, the ego protects the psyche from anxiety using unconscious mechanisms. These include Regression (returning to a childhood stage), Sublimation (aggression channeled into sports), and Projection. Trap: Projection is NOT a cognitive operation, but an unconscious defense.
Locus of Control
A concept introduced by J. Rotter. Internal locus: I control my own life. External locus: my life is controlled by fate or other people.
2. Developmental Psychology
Piaget vs. Vygotsky
Piaget explained learning through biological assimilation and accommodation. Vygotsky (sociocultural approach), on the other hand, placed absolute emphasis on environmental factors, social interaction, and language (zone of proximal development, internalization).
Cognitive Development (Piaget)
Sensorimotor stage (understanding object permanence), Preoperational (egocentrism, magical thinking), Concrete operational (understanding conservation).
Moral Development (Kohlberg)
Preconventional (orientation toward reward and punishment), Conventional (orientation toward law and being a "good boy"). Trap: The third, postconventional level (universal ethics) is often referred to in exams as the Principled level.
Freud vs. Erikson (End of Development)
Freud's psychosexual development has 5 stages and ends in adolescence. Erikson's psychosocial development (epigenetic principle) consists of 8 crises and lasts a lifetime, right into old age.
Early Attachment
The bond to the mother was described by J. Bowlby and M. Ainsworth. It is divided into secure, avoidant, anxious-ambivalent, and disorganized attachment.
3. Social Psychology
The Big Three Experiments
Asch = Conformity (line length). Milgram = Obedience to authority (electric shocks). Zimbardo = Influence of role and situation (Stanford prison, Lucifer effect).
Group and Crowd
Deindividuation occurs in a crowd (loss of rationality, responsibility, and anonymity according to Le Bon). Lewin described three leadership styles: Autocratic, Democratic, and Laissez-faire.
Diffusion of Responsibility
Known as the Bystander effect. The more people present at an accident, the lower the probability that someone will help.
Errors in Social Perception
Fundamental attribution error = overestimating a person's internal traits (they are mean) and underestimating the situation (they are under pressure). Halo effect = one trait overshadows everything else. Pygmalion effect = self-fulfilling prophecy.
Components of an Attitude
Every attitude has exactly 3 components: Cognitive (knowledge), Affective (emotions), and Conative/behavioral (readiness to act/behavior).
Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger)
An unpleasant tension that arises when our beliefs do not align with our actual behavior (I know it's harmful, but I do it anyway).
4. Clinical Psychology
Stress (H. Selye and GAS)
The General Adaptation Syndrome has 3 stages: Alarm reaction (shock, adrenaline) -> Resistance (adaptation to the stressor) -> Exhaustion (illness, collapse).
Coping vs. Defense Mechanisms
Coping is a conscious, rational strategy for managing stress. Defense mechanisms protect the Ego, but they always operate unconsciously.
Hallucination vs. Delusion
The most common exam trap. Hallucination = a disorder of PERCEPTION (a person hears voices that do not exist). Delusion = a disorder of THOUGHT (a morbid and irrefutable belief, e.g., that they are being followed).
OCD: Obsession vs. Compulsion
An obsession is an unwanted, intrusive thought that causes anxiety. A compulsion is an irresistible act (ritual) that a person uses to defend against anxiety (e.g., hand washing).
Symptoms in Schizophrenia
Positive symptoms ("something extra") = delusions and hallucinations. Negative symptoms ("something missing") = apathy, loss of emotion and will.
Psychotherapy: The Three Main Approaches
Psychoanalysis (Freud) works with the unconscious and transference. CBT works with cognitive errors and behavior modification. The Person-Centered Approach (Rogers) relies on unconditional positive regard, empathy, and congruence.
Psychopharmacology
Antidepressants take weeks to start working. Anxiolytics work immediately, but carry a high risk of addiction. Trap: Lithium is a mood stabilizer used to treat Bipolar Affective Disorder.